Human Growth and Development

Definition

The term growth and development both refers to dynamic process. Often used interchangeably, these terms have different meanings. Growth and development are interdependent, interrelated process. Growth generally takes place during the first 20 years of life.; development continues after that.

Growth:

Is physical change and increase in size.
It can be measured quantitatively.
Indicators of growth includes height, weight, bone size, and dentition.
Growth rates vary during different stages of growth and development.
The growth rate is rapid during the prenatal, neonatal, infancy and adolescent stages and slows during childhood.
Physical growth is minimal during adulthood.

Development:

Is an increase in the complexity of function and skill progression.
It is the capacity and skill of a person to adapt to the environment.
Development is the behavioral aspect of growth

Freud’s Psychosexual Development Theory

STAGE	AGE	CHARACTERISTICS
1. Oral	Birth to 1½ y/o	Center of pleasure: mouth (major source of gratification & exploration) Primary need: Security Major conflict: weaning
2. Anal	1½ to 3 y/o	Source of pleasure: anus & bladder (sensual satisfaction & self-control) Major conflict: toilet training
3. Phallic	4 to 6 y/o	Center of pleasure: child’s genital (masturbation) Major conflict: Oedipus & Electra Complex
4. Latency	6 y/o to puberty	Energy directed to physical & intellectual activities Sexual impulses repressed Relationship between peers of same sex
5. Genital	Puberty onwards	Energy directed towards full sexual maturity & function & development of skills to cope with the environment

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development Theory

STAGE	AGE	CENTRAL TASK	(+) RESOLUTION	(-) RESOLUTION
1. Infancy	Birth-18 mos	Trust vs Mistrust	Learn to trust others	Mistrust, withdrawal, estrangement
2. Early childhood	1½ to 3 y/o	Autonomy vs Shame & doubt	Self control w/o loss of self esteem Ability of cooperate & express oneself	Compulsive, self-restraint or compliance. Willfulness & defiance.
3. Late childhood	3 to 5 y/o	Initiative vs guilt	Learns to become assertive Ability to evaluate one’s own behavior	Lack of self-confidence. Pessimism, fear of wrongdoing. Over-control & over-restriction.
4. School Age	6 to 12 y/o	Industry vs Inferiority	Learns to create, develop & manipulate. Develop sense of competence & perseverance.	Loss of hope, sense of being mediocre. Withdrawal from school & peers.
5. Adolescence	12–20 y/o	Identity vs role confusion	Coherent sense of self. Plans to actualize one’s abilities	Feelings of confusion, indecisiveness, & possible anti-social behavior.
6. Young Adulthood	18-25 y/o	Intimacy vs isolation	Intimate relationship with another person. Commitment to work and relationships.	Impersonal relationships. Avoidance of relationship, career or lifestyle commitments.
7. Adulthood	25-65 y/o	Generativity vs stagnation	Creativity, productivity, concern for others.	Self-indulgence, self-concern, lack of interests & commitments.
8. Maturity	65 y/o to death	Integrity vs despair	Acceptance of worth & uniqueness of one’s own life. Acceptance of death.	Sense of loss, contempt for others.

Havighurst’s Developmental Stage and Tasks

DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE	DEVELOPMENTAL TASK
1. Infancy & early childhood	eat solid foods walk talk control elimination of wastes relate emotionally to others distinguish right from wrong through development of a conscience learn sex differences and sexual modesty achieve personal independence form simple concepts of social & physical reality
2. Middle childhood	learn physical skills, required for games build healthy attitudes towards oneself learn to socialize with peers learn appropriate masculine or feminine role gain basic reading, writing & mathematical skills develop concepts necessary for everyday living formulate a conscience based on a value system achieve personal independence develop attitudes toward social groups & institutions
3. Adolescence	establish more mature relationships with same-age individuals of both sexes achieve a masculine or feminine social role accept own body establish emotional independence from parents achieve assurance of economic independence prepare for an occupation prepare for marriage & establishment of a family acquire skills necessary to fulfill civic responsibilities develop a set of values that guides behavior
4. Early Adulthood	select a partner learn to live with a partner start a family manage a home establish self in a career/occupation assume civic responsibilities become part of a social group
5. Middle Adulthood	fulfill civic & social responsibilities maintain an economic standard of living assist adolescent children to become responsible, happy adults relate one’s partner adjust to physiological changes adjust to aging parents
6. Later Maturity	– adjust to physiological changes & alterations in health status – adjust to retirement & altered income – adjust to death of spouse – develop affiliation with one’s age group – meet civic & social responsibilities – establish satisfactory living arrangements

Levinson’s Seasons of Adulthood

AGE	SEASON	CHARACTERISTICS
18-20 yrs	Early adult transition	Seeks independence by separating from family
21-27 yrs	Entrance into the adult world	Experiments with different careers & lifestyles
28-32 yrs	Transition	Makes lifestyle adjustments
33-39 yrs	Settling down	Experiences greater stability
45-65 yrs	Pay-off years	Is self-directed & engages in self-evaluation

Sullivan’s Interpersonal Model of Personality Development

STAGE	AGE	DESCRIPTION
1. Infancy	Birth to 1½ yrs	Infant learns to rely on caregivers to meet needs & desires
2. Childhood	1½ to 6 yrs	Child begins learning to delay immediate gratification of needs & desires
3. Juvenile	6 to 9 yrs	Child forms fulfilling peer relationships
4. Preadolescence	9 to 12 yrs	Child relates successfully to same-sex peers
5. Early Adolescence	12 to 14 yrs	Adolescent learns to be independent & forms relationships with members of opposite sex
6. Late Adolescence	14 to 21 yrs	Person establishes an intimate, long-lasting relationship with someone of the opposite sex

Piaget’s Phases of Cognitive Development

PHASE	AGE	DESCRIPTION
a. Sensorimotor	Birth to 2 yrs	Sensory organs & muscles become more functional
Stage 1: Use of reflexes	Birth to 1 month	Movements are primarily reflexive
Stage 2: Primary circular reaction	1-4 months	Perceptions center around one’s body. Objects are perceived as extensions of the self.
Stage 3: Secondary circular reaction	4-8 months	Becomes aware of external environment. Initiates acts to change the movement.
Stage 4: Coordination of secondary schemata	8-12 months	Differentiates goals and goal-directed activities.
Stage 5: Tertiary circular reaction	12-18 months	Experiments with methods to reach goals. Develops rituals that become significant.
Stage 6: Invention of new means	18-24 months	Uses mental imagery to understand the environment. Uses fantasy.
b. Pre-operational	2-7 years	Emerging ability to think
Pre-conceptual stage	2-4 year	Thinking tends to be egocentric. Exhibits use of symbolism.
Intuitive stage	4-7 years	Unable to break down a whole into separate parts. Able to classify objects according to one trait.
c. Concrete Operations	7-11 years	Learns to reason about events in the here-and-now.
d. Formal Operations	11+ years	Able to see relationships and to reason in the abstract.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

LEVEL AND STAGE	DESCRIPTION
LEVEL I: Pre-conventional	Authority figures are obeyed.
(Birth to 9 years)	Misbehavior is viewed in terms of damage done.
Stage 1: Punishment & obedience orientation	A deed is perceived as “wrong” if one is punished; the activity is “right” if one is not punished.
Stage 2: Instrumental-relativist orientation	“Right” is defined as that which is acceptable to & approved by the self. When actions satisfy one’s needs, they are “right.”
LEVEL II: Conventional	Cordial interpersonal relationships are maintained.
(9-13 years)	Approval of others is sought through one’s actions.
Stage 3: Interpersonal concordance	Authority is respected.
Stage 4: Law and order orientation	Individual feels “duty bound” to maintain social order. Behavior is “right” when it conforms to the rules.
LEVEL III: Post-conventional	Individual understands the morality of having democratically established laws.
(13+ years)
Stage 5: Social contract orientation	It is “wrong” to violate others’ rights.
Stage 6: Universal ethics orientation	The person understands the principles of human rights & personal conscience. Person believes that trust is basis for relationships.

Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development

LEVEL	CHARACTERISTICS
I. Orientation of Individual Survival Transition	Concentrates on what is best for self. Selfish. Dependent on others.
Transition 1: From Selfishness to Responsibility	Recognizes connections to others. Makes responsible choices in terms of self and others.
II. Goodness as Self-sacrifice	Puts needs of others ahead of own. Feels responsible for others. Is dependent. May use guilt to manipulate others when attempting to “help.”
Transition 2: From Goodness to Truth	Decisions based on intentions & consequences, not on others’ responses. Considers needs of self and others. Wants to help others while being responsible to self. Increased social participation.
III. Morality of Nonviolence	Sees self and others as morally equal Assumes responsibilities for own decisions. Basic tenet to hurt no one including self. Conflict between selfishness and selflessness. Self-judgment is not dependent on others’ perceptions but rather on consequences & intentions of actions.

Fowler’s Stages of Faith

STAGE	AGE	CHARACTERISTICS
Pre-stage: Undifferentiated faith	Infant	Trust, hope and love compete with environmental inconsistencies or threats if abandonment.
Stage 1: Intuitive-projective faith	Toddler-preschooler	Imitates parental behaviors and attitudes about religion and spirituality. Has no real understanding of spiritual concepts.
Stage 2: Mythical-literal faith	School-aged child	Accepts existence of a deity. Religious & moral beliefs are symbolized by stories. Appreciates others’ viewpoints. Accepts concept of reciprocal fairness.
Stage 3: Synthetic-conventional faith	Adolescent	Questions values & religious beliefs in an attempt to form own identity.
Stage 4: Individuative-reflective faith	Late adolescent & young adult	Assumes responsibility for own attitudes & beliefs.
Stage 5: Conjunctive faith	Adult	Integrates other perspectives about faith into own definition of truth.
Stage 6: Universalizing faith	Adult	Makes concepts of love & justice tangible.